Alzheimer s Disease ( Ad ) - 2192 Words

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a cognitive neurodegerative disorder and one of the major forms of dementia; it represents 60-80% of the dementia patients (Barker et at., 2002). It is estimated by the end of 2015, 53 million people of America would be affected and this would almost double by 2025 and triple by 2050, hence making research momentous for the cure (Hebert et al., 2013). It takes almost 8.5 years between the onset of symptoms of the disease and death (Francis, Palmer, Snape et al., 1998). AD affects the hippocampus and the neocortex region of the brain. These are affected by the deposition of amyloid ÃŽ ² in senile plaques, neurofibrilary tangles and the decline of neuronal synapses. The symptoms of AD includes memory loss resulting in disrupted daily life, confusion with place and time, problem with speaking and writing and many other. Earlier research was done on the inhibition of amyloid ÃŽ ², but a relatively new approach is to find inhibitors for acetlycholinesterases enzyme (AChE). The action of AChE results in the blockage of transmission of acetylcholine (ACh), hence hyperphosphorylating the tau protein which affects the breakage of amyloid precursor protein(APP), which firther results in the increase in amyloid ÃŽ ². The binding of AChE causes decrease in the binding of ACh to muscarinic recptor and nicotinic receptors (Francis, Palmer, Sna pe et al., 1998). A recent study has shown that ACh does not only have cognitive functions, it regulates theShow MoreRelatedAlzheimer s Disease ( Ad )1108 Words   |  5 Pages Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is a form of dementia that affects 5 million people in the United States alone. One out of every three Seniors die of the disease just in the United States; 80 million suffering world wide making AD the 6th largest cause of death (climax) (Humpel 1; Alzheimer’s Association). AD is the most common dementia; affecting the neuroplasticity of the brain resulting in physical shrinking of the tissues; thus causing neurodegeneration. Diagnosis of the disease is complex, costlyRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease ( Ad ) Essay1112 Words   |  5 Pages Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly, accounting for 65–70% of all cases (Jellinger, Janetzky, Attems, Kienzl, 2008). The other dementias are of the Parkinson s group, the fronto-temporal gr oup and the vascular group. The total worldwide yearly costs for the treatment and care of patients suffering from dementia are estimated to be around 250 billion US dollars. The lifetime risk for AD between the ages of 65 and 100 is 33% for men and 45% for women withRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease ( Ad ) Essay1765 Words   |  8 PagesAlzheimer’s Disease is similar to a literal chipping block of the brain; it is like this conscious genetic machine that (figuratively and) continually deep-fries brain cells and makes them clump up into masses that entangle many cognitive processes that allow an individual to be who they are. It is the slow progression into death where the mental faculties are ravaged and pilfered; the sinews that tie each and every neuron and synapse together. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a condition where thereRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease ( Ad )1244 Words   |  5 PagesAlzheimer s disease(AD) wrecks memory and other essential mental capacities. Research has shown that numerous individuals with dementia, particularly those who are sixty-five or older, have brain impairments. All through the numerous periods of Alzheimer s disease, people appear to show any indication, yet harmful changes are occurring in the cerebrum. An unnatural deposit of proteins structure amyloid plaques and tau tangles all through the brain, and once the active neurons quit working, theyRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease ( Ad )1112 Words   |  5 PagesAlzheimer’s disease (AD) is a complex, multifactorial neurodegenerative disease that is currently being managed by symptomatic treatment. The affected areas include the central nervous system (CNS) which is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is essential in managing our thoughts, cognitive abilities, and our ability to interact with the environment. AD patients are known to experience symptoms such as memory loss in the early stages which develop into speaking difficulties to eventuallyRead More Alzheimer s Disease ( Ad )1068 Words   |  5 PagesAlzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by ÃŽ ²-amyloid plaque formation caused by aggregation of ÃŽ ²-amyloid42 within the brain leading to a progressive decline in cognitive function and memory loss (2). Hyperphosphorylated tau protein is occasionally found in brains of AD patients with advanced pathology however, it is not necessarily an indicator of AD but considered a sign of disease severity (2, 4, Kosik et al, 1986). AD is separated into two subcategories followingRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease ( Ad )1172 Words   |  5 PagesAlzheimer’s disease (AD) is a disorder that is characterized by degeneration of the hippocampal and cortical neurons of the brain – causing memory impairment and a decline in cognitive abilities. The current study by Ghoneim et al.1 focuses on the role of three proteins in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s. Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling is important for development and maintenance of normal neuronal circuits in the brain. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is expressed by astrocytesRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease ( Ad )1361 Words   |  6 PagesAlzheimer’s disease (AD), according to Shan (2013), â€Å"is the most common form of dementia. It is a degenerative, incurable, and terminal disease.† (p. 32). AD is a disease in which the brain essentially deteriorates, is vastly progressive, and complex. Because there is no cure for this disease, scientists and researchers should continue seeking effective prevention measures. Alzheimer’s disease accounts for hundreds of thousands of geriatric deaths each year, and affects not only the patient, butRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease ( Ad ) Essay1588 Words   |  7 Pages This paper explores various elements and issues related to Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Topics briefly detailed include etiology, symptomology, diagnosis, neuroanatomy, neurotransmitter systems involved and treatments that focus on neurotransmitters. Emphasis is placed on such topics as cognitive decline and dementia; neurological change; and changes to neurotransmitters and synapses. Details concerning diagnosis and treatment are brief, but do elaborate somewhat on present studies into addressingRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease ( Ad )1067 Words   |  5 Pageswith Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a brain disease that slowly eradicates recollection, thinking skills and slowly the ability to perform menial tasks. Alzheimer’s disease is classified as the loss of cognitive functioning-thinking, remembering, and reasoning- and behavioral abilities to such an extent that it interferes with a person’s daily life and activities. (****1*) Dementia can vary depending on the types of brain changes such as Lewy body disease, (which are abnormalities

Segu a Novel by Maryse Conde - 1548 Words

In the novel Segu, Maryse Conde beautifully constructs personal and in depth images of African history through the use of four main characters that depict the struggles and importance of family in what is now present day Mali. These four characters and also brothers, by the names of Tiekoro, Siga, Naba, and Malobali are faced with a world changing around their beloved city of Bambara with new customs of the Islamic religion and the developing ideas of European commerce and slave trade. These new expansions in Africa become stepping stones for the Troare brothers to face head on and they have brought both victory and heartache for them and their family. These four characters are centralized throughout this novel because they provide the†¦show more content†¦And Naba, who loses his role model, and grieves on his behalf. As Islam continues to spread and conquer more and more lands, the more families become split as parents send their children to schools to learn how to write an d speak Arabic. When Tiekoro left for Timbuktu the Troare family continued to divide and separate due to continuous forces by foreign expansion and hunger for riches. As a son of a slave woman who had drowned herself, Siga isn’t regarded with nearly as high as prestige as Tiekoro is, despite them only being a couple hours apart in age. After being banished away for not being Muslim, Siga adjusted to his environment with the help of a kind boy and, after being a donkey boy for a while, decides to go into trade. Trade goes completely against the respectable income of a Bambara nobleman, which can be made through cultivating agriculture because the Troare family â€Å"owned plenty of good land planted with millet, cotton, and fonio, worked by hundreds of slaves† (Conde 4). Especially because the Mali Empire had been on fertile land where many different kinds of crops such as ones of sorghum, millet, and fonio could be maintained and the domestication of animals like sheep, goats, and cattle had been strong (Africa 141). Although the way of a Bambara had been agriculture, Siga ventured onto occupy the city of Timbuktu and then Fex so tha tShow MoreRelatedEssay on Segu1143 Words   |  5 PagesEssay Number One The Spread of Islam and the Slave Trade Segu is a garden where cunning grows. Segu is built on treachery. Speak of Segu outside Segu, but do not speak of Segu in Segu (Conde 3). These are the symbolic opening words to the novel Segu by Maryse Conde. The kingdom of Segu in the eighteenth and nineteenth century represents the rise and fall of many kingdoms in the pre-colonial Africa. Therefore, Segu indirectly represents the enduring struggles, triumphs, and defeats ofRead More The Spread of Islam and the Slave Trade Essay1127 Words   |  5 PagesThe Spread of Islam and the Slave Trade â€Å"Segu is a garden where cunning grows. Segu is built on treachery. Speak of Segu outside Segu, but do not speak of Segu in Segu† (Conde 3). These are the symbolic opening words to the novel Segu by Maryse Conde. The kingdom of Segu in the eighteenth and nineteenth century represents the rise and fall of many kingdoms in the pre-colonial Africa. Therefore, Segu indirectly represents the enduring struggles, triumphs, and defeats of people who are of AfricanRead MoreSegu by Maryse Conde Essay971 Words   |  4 PagesSegu by Maryse Conde Using specific illustrations from Maryse Condes novel Segu, this is an essay that discusses how the coming of Islam to Bambar society affected that peoples traditional, political, social and economic practices as well as challenging the Bambaras religious beliefs. Before the arrival of Islam, Segu and its people, the Bambaras, were extremely different world from what they became under Islamic rule. The Bambaras were proud people with a long history in farming, andRead MoreStatus of Women in Things Fall Apart1421 Words   |  6 PagesWhen reading Segu and Things Fall Apart, the role of women is a major part of each novel. Their roles are alike in some ways but at the same time they have some slight differences. In Achebe’s text, women do not seem to be of much importance in their day to day life, but they are crucial to the spiritual wellness of their culture. In Conde’s text though, the women are much more respected by the people in their tribe. The level of reverence for women differs greatly in each novel. In Things FallRead MoreAn Analysis of Segu by Maryse Conde Essay1933 Words   |  8 PagesMadeline Sayre Black Studies 49A- MIESCHER Wednesday 12 pm 3-12-13 In the novel Segu, Maryse Conde beautifully constructs personal and in depth images of African history through the use of four main characters that depict the struggles and importance of family in what is now present day Mali. These four characters and also brothers, by the names of Tiekoro, Siga, Naba, and Malobali are faced with a world changing around their beloved city of Bambara with new customs of the Islamic religionRead MoreSegu Literary Analysis1926 Words   |  8 PagesMarlon Molinare Black Studies 49A Prof. Meischer Wednesday @ 1:00pm March 10 2009 Segu Literary Analysis The historical novel Segu by Maryse Condà © is set in the African country of Segu during a time of great cultural change. The African Slave Trade, the spread of Islam, and personal identity challenges were all tremendous and far-reaching issues facing Africa from the late 1700s to early 1800s. Condà © uses the four brothers of the Traore family, Tiekoro, Malobali, Siga, and Naba, to demonstrateRead MoreConflicts in the Novel Segu Essay1188 Words   |  5 PagesControversies and conflicts are many ways to emphasize key characters and plots in many novels. Authors such as, Maryse Conde use change and the effects of change, to help the reader better understand the underlying themes. In the novel Segu, Conde does just this. The controversy of change in religion creates a fairly large civil conflict amongst the Bambara people. This same civil conflict eventually boils over into the controversy of change in people and trade. The effect of this change would laterRead MoreEssay Conflic ts in the novel Segu1189 Words   |  5 Pages Controversies and conflicts are many ways to emphasize key characters and plots in many novels. Authors such as, Maryse Conde use change and the effects of change, to help the reader better understand the underlying themes. In the novel Segu, Conde does just this. The controversy of change in religion creates a fairly large civil conflict amongst the Bambara people. This same civil conflict eventually boils over into the controversy of change in people and trade. The effect of this change wouldRead MoreLearning About a Different Culture in Maryse Conde’s Segu Essay1233 Words   |  5 PagesMaryse Conde’s novel Segu tells the vivid story of a family hurtled into the chaos of a rapidly changing world. Conde does a phenomenal job of putting readers into the mindset of her many colorful characters allowing readers access to thoughts and motivations behind these characters’ actions. The story is exceptionally intricate and yet the individual stories all feel interconnected back to the Traore family who are the focus point of the novel. Various themes all play a part in the telling of Segu

Characteristics of Orientalism, Prejudice free essay sample

Orientalism does not define the differences in origin, cultural practices, or religion for those who belong to either group. These stereotypical views have been problematic for many Arab and Muslim Americans in the years since the 9/11, and despite the Presidents reassurance, many Arabs and Muslims were detained, questioned at length, and some were kept against their will for long periods of time. Ironically, many of those arrested were American born citizens. Racial profiling has been at the forefront of many political discussions, and it would seem that there is still some conflict where civil rights are concealed. As recently as 2007, a bill known as The Violent Radicalization and Homegrown Terrorism Act (S. 1959 / H. R. 1955) has been passed to investigate terrorism. The Center for Constitutional Rights (2007) has argued however, that the bill is unconstitutional and encourages law enforcement officials to unlawfully detain and accuse members of the American public of politically motivated terrorist intentions. We will write a custom essay sample on Characteristics of Orientalism, Prejudice or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Senator Jon Tester (D-MT) (2007) may have stated an opposing view best when he said that S. 1959 will be â€Å"Intruding on the lives and freedom of average Americans and does not make us any safer† (para. 1). Our collective efforts to promote tolerance, understanding and acceptance of Arab and Muslim citizens must begin by educating our children about world religions. Ignorance promotes prejudice and discrimination, and hate crimes are more likely to occur when people fear for their safety. A program designed to foster tolerance introduces different religions to children in schools. Information on Teaching Tolerance (n. d. ) programs is readily available through the Southern Poverty Law Center, and grant money can be obtained for those schools who wish to implement the programs into their curriculum (http://hubpages. om)†. As an individual I feel that all I can do to help with the hate crimes and prejudice is continue to raise my children the way I have raised them all their lives. They are raised to believe that all people are equal, no matter what the color, race, religion or ethnicity. God made us all and will be the judge in our final days who are we to judge, lest we be judged ourselves.

Education will never be as expensive as ignorance Essay Example For Students

Education will never be as expensive as ignorance Essay What are differences between education and Ignorance? Why do many people agree with a quote Education will never be as expensive as ignorance. Most of the people who graduate from colleges know it is the fact that education costs them a huge amount of money. For instance, people have to pay school fees, buy gas to drive to schools, spend time at schools, and commit to their study. Moreover, some students cant afford colleges because their parents arent able to support them to get degrees, so they must get loans from banks. I guess many readers could wonder why the author states that education would be always cheaper than Ignorance. In my opinion, the quote carries a deep meaning Athena people dont have good education and become useless people for the society, It does not only cost them but also the society. This means ignorance of education can make them make mistakes which may cause serious problems to the society. There are several examples to show what damages could happen when people are uneducated. First, some people can become dangerous criminals because they infringe laws unconsciously, and they are not palpable to distinguish good things and bad things. Second, employers dont want to hire workers who dont have a basic requirement to be hired, which is a high school diploma, because they know those workers cant make profits for their companies and work effectively. Last, people who are lazy to study become a burden for people around since people who work hard do many things such as charities and pay more taxes in order to support uneducated people. To conclude, people should take an advantage of education because It can pay off not only for their personal lives but also for the best of the society.

The Role Of Victorian Women Jane Eyre free essay sample

The Role Of Victorian Womans: Jane Eyre By Charolette Bronte Essay, Research Paper Jane Eyre Jane Eyre # 8217 ; s Triumph Over Oppression: Charlotte Bronte # 8217 ; s Example for Women Charlotte Bronte, in her novel, Jane Eyre, establishes us with a first-hand history of a adult females # 8217 ; s victory over adversities. Jain was born orphaned, hapless, and grew up in an un-loving place. To add abuse to hurt, she was a adult female in Victorian society ; a low-level place to get down with. Throughout the novel, Jane faces many adversities that genuinely tested her spirit and unity. She refused to hold her life determined for her, and stayed strong through hardship. By giving us the character of Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte gives us a medium in which to experience the agony and impotence of Jane # 8217 ; s state of affairss. The first-person narrative helps the reader relate more closely to the state of affairs, and the victory of Jane # 8217 ; s character through her hardships is an illustration for adult females to populate their lives by. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role Of Victorian Women Jane Eyre or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page When Jane is merely 10 old ages old, we are shown a glance of her strength of character. Confronting much bitterness and immorality in the Reed house, Jane can non be degraded much longer, at least without stating something about it, and confronts Mrs. Reed: # 8220 ; I am non fallacious: if I were, I should state I loved you ; but I declare I do non love you: I dislike you the worst of anybody in the universe except John Reed: and this book about the prevaricator, you may give to your miss Georgiana, for it is she who tells prevarications, and non I ( p.45 ) .† Further portraying Jane’s passion and stamina is what she thought right before standing up for herself. Speak I must: I had been trodden on badly, and must turn: but how? What strength had I to flit revenge at my adversary? I gathered my energies and launched them in this blunt sentence: †¦ ( p.45 ) This is a immense turning point in Jane’s life ; one that greatly affects her for the remainder of her life. After go oning her revenge at Mrs. Reed, Jane feels over-powered. â€Å"Ere I had finished this answer, my psyche began to spread out, to walk on air, with the strangest sense of freedom, of victory, I of all time felt.† ( p.46 ) This gives Jane a sense of assurance in herself to travel out in the universe and be what she wants to be. She straight addressed a fright, stood up for herself, and, in the procedure, gained the strength and fortitude she would necessitat e to confront her approaching adversities. Jane grows up with a natural inquiring of authorization and an independent, un-coercive head. She was non traveling to put down for merely anyone, and was ever cognizant of the subjugation she was enduring, and where it was coming from. When Helen tells Jane to be less unprompted and merely to obey the regulations of her school and†¦ The remainder of the paper is available free of charge to our registered users. The enrollment procedure merely couldn # 8217 ; t be easier. Log in or registry now. It is all free!

The Human Potential for Blind Obedience essays

The Human Potential for Blind Obedience essays One of the most dramatic events in the immediate aftermath of World War II was the series of Nuremburg Trials for the Nazi atrocities during the war, held in the German city by that name. The trials lasted almost as long as the war itself and much of civilized society was appalled as one Nazi defendant after another disclaimed any personal responsibility for their actions because they all claimed merely to be following orders. The crimes that they perpetrated were so heinous and brutal that many concluded that the Nazi regime was run by a collection of societys worst sociopaths most of whom would likely have committed equally savage crimes under ordinary circumstances. Hardly more than two decades later, two landmark psychology experiments were conducted by Stanley Milgram who examined the phenomenon of obedience to authority and by Phillip Zimbardo who examined the potential for abuse of authority in his famous Stanford Prison experiment. The results of those two experiments caused the psychological community to reevaluate conclusions about what was responsible for the blind obedience to authority and spontaneous cruelty perpetrated in Nazi Germany Stanley Milgram Obedience to Authority: The experiment designed by Milgram used subjects who were unaware that they were the subjects of the experiment; they were given roles of teachers in a supposed memory experiment, in conjunction with which they were instructed by an authoritative figure in a white lab coat to administer what the subjects believed were electric shocks to the sham learners who were actually complicit in the experiment and not really connected to any electric apparatus. The real purpose of the experiment was to observe the extent to which ordinary people would administer painful elect ...

Consumer Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Consumer Behavior - Essay Example crucial idea that the work at hand emphasises, but prior to seeing the big picture about it, it is also important to learn the other significant things about Costco. Costco was originally operating under the name of Price Club in 1976. The firm is founded by James Sinegal and Jeffrey H. Brotman. In 1983, the first Costco warehouse was instituted in Seattle Washington. In 1993, Costco merged with Price Club, calling it PriceCostco, while dominantly employing the business model and size of Price Club, which generated billion dollar sales every year. However, Robert Price, the founder of Price club left PriceCostco and started Price Enterprises in 1994. This left Costco alone and led it to rebrand the firm as Costco Wholesale in 1997 including all those Price Club locations it had already established. Costco is the second largest retailer in the US and the fifth largest retailer in the world (Said, 2013). Today, Costco is known for its ability to provide high value for customers, especially when it comes to its highly affordable and varied product offerings. The company carries a â€Å"broad line of product categories including groceries, appliances, television and media, automotive supplies, toys, hardware, sporting goods, jewelry, cameras, books, housewares, apparel, health and beauty aids, tobacco, furniture, office supplies, and office equipment† (Sander & Bobo, 2011). Perhaps, one will call Costco a one-stop shop, with high affordability, enough to help the small to medium-sized businesses to save on their purchases for them to be able to resale. However, Costco’s leading sales came from individual consumer, the firm’s ultimate growth driver (Sander & Bobo, 2011). There are many things to understand about Costco, which primarily include its values, mission, vision and objective. However, aside from this, ideas concerning its current related-marketing moves and stakeholders are also vital considerations in understanding this firm. â€Å"Costco’s mission is

Analyze how the 4 authors approached the issue of race, its history, Research Paper

Analyze how the 4 authors approached the issue of race, its history, and place within slavery - Research Paper Example The authors discussed below each represent a certain part of the African American heritage in the New World. Ira Berlin Ira Berlin in his essay â€Å"From Creole to African: Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of African-American Society in Mainland North America† discussed that not all slaves transported to the New World were not pure Africans. Instead there were a lot of people who were between Africans and European and were known better as Creole. The origination of the term Creole in early America is also traced and is indicated as an integral part of early America (Berlin, 21). Creoles are often overlooked by historians but they are an integral part of black immigrants in early America. Berlin supports his thesis by using evidence such as the opening story about Virginia’s Robert â€Å"King† Carter who renamed all of his slaves to prove his absolute power and ability to abuse slaves (Berlin, 19). The author focuses on how plantation slaves were handled and this is merged into the origins of the Creole people. The influence of the European traders in modifying large tracts of the populations along the Gold Coast and Elmina by interracial mixing of African and Europeans is also clearly demonstrated (Berlin, 22). Based on this change, Creoles were put in a position to assume roles that eventually made them important mediators between European traders and indigenous Africans (Berlin, 27). The movement of Creoles into the New World demonstrates that the influence of Dutch traders was significant in settling the Creoles in America through their bases in Curacao and New Amsterdam (Berlin, 30). Following this the author talks of various Atlantic Creoles who were established in Virginia who later diverged into other states present in early America (Berlin, 42). The end of the essay is used by the author to present various kinds of evidence used to augment the initial thesis. Margaret Washington Washington’s chapter â€Å"Gullah Roots† is based on a specific ethnic group of African slaves captured from several different African countries that were later known as the Gullah. The author argues that a majority of planters in America preferred a specific ethnic class of Africans who were adept at cultivating rice. These Africans were captured and enslaved from a region better known as the Gold Coast (Washington, 68). These slaves were subjected to masters who â€Å"also reinforced the Old World heritage† which means that these salves were subjected to inhumane treatment and were treated as people of lower status. These slaves are shown as being large contributors to modern African American culture. The author has used multiple primary sources such as a written source from the governor of Leeward Islands from 1701 (Washington, 68). This example as well as others supports the argument that slaves from the Gold Coast area were preferred. The records of Henry Laurens have also been used and reveal â€Å"a sense of prevailing attitudes toward African origins† in terms of slaves destined for the New World (Washington, 72). The author also uses secondary sources such as those related to the Muslim religion in order to augment aspects of the Gullah culture for example the Fulani and Mandinga Muslims who were settled in the mountainous regions of Sierra Leone (Washington, 76). These examples show that Muslims gained influence and authority and used it to enslave other

Humans versus Nature-- which selects better for human survival, from a Essay - 2

Humans versus Nature-- which selects better for human survival, from a biological point of view - Essay Example ground concepts of natural selection, gene inheritance and anomalies, and adaptation will be important in trying to understand some of the decisions human beings have made. The paper will also assess how the contemporary society has responded to health and adaptation challenges in the bio environment from the perspective of nature and genetics. Human adaptation to natural environment is under constant challenge, prompting a continuous process of biological evolution. Human being’s capability for adaptation shaped his life on a number of ways. Man evolved to an upright posture, enlarged of brain, ability to make and use tools, emergence of sophisticated mental and social behavior. Human beings later developed technology to change his environment and improve their health. Therefore, nature seems to be having great influence on human survival decisions (BBC 1). Natural selection as one of the biological factors for human survival was based on the fact that the environment selected the most adaptable organisms to pass on their genetic materials. Natural selection means that organisms that were best adapted survived the harsh conditions of the environment whereas those that were poorly adapted died. Organisms that survived were able to interbreed and therefore, pass on their good genetic traits to their young ones. As organisms that had survived interbred, the crossing over genetic materials ensured genetic variation and genetic inheritance. Resulting organisms were those ones that constantly evolved and adapted to the environment. This does not mean that environmentally acquired traits were inherited, but that the environment naturally selected organism that were best adapted. It is said that human evolution took the same process of natural selection where those with good traits survived the harsh environment while those that were poorly adapted died and did not pass their traits to offspring. Inheritance, adaptation and natural selection still matter in the

Folate-conjugated Therapeutic Agents for Arthritis

Folate-conjugated Therapeutic Agents for Arthritis IN VIVO STUDIES Consistent performance of a controlled release formulation upon dosing is critical to a quality product. In vivo evaluation of any drug delivery system is quite essential because many factors like pH of different biological organs, enzyme systems and variable affinity of carrier system for the various biological fluids including the tissues are expected to influence its performance. These factors affect the in vivo biological distribution and the drug release profile from a novel carrier system. In vivo studies are important in evaluating the bioavailability of drug from the designed formulations. Screening of the anti-inflammatory activity The screening methods for the evaluation of anti inflamatory activity have been classified as follows :- A. Nonimmunological methods 1. Evaluation of acute inflammation Carrageenan induced paw edema model (Winter et al.,1962) Histamine induced hind paw method. Carrageenan granuloma pouch technique. 2. Evaluation of chronic inflamation Formaldehyde induced arthritis. B.  Immunological methods 1. Adjuvant induced arthritis Complete Freunds adjuvant induced arthritic model. 2. Collagen induced arthritic model. 3. Borrelia burgdorferi induced arthritic model. C.  Miscellaneous U.V. erythema inflamatory model. MATERIAL AND METHODS Male albino rats In vivo study was performed on the albino rats (av.wt.100 ±20 g).The animal studies were conducted with the permission of Institutional Animal Ethical Committee of Dr. Hari Singh Gour University, Sagar (M.P.). Animals were housed in plastic cages in the thermoneutral environment, and were supplied with feed pellet and water ad libitum. Induction of arthritis Carrageenan induced arthritis method was selected for present study (Winter et al., 1962). Carrageenan acts as phlogistic agent which causes the formation of edema due to stimulation of release of various proinflamatory agents like prostaglandins, histamine and serotonin, bradykinin. tachykinins, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species etc. BIODISTRIBUTION STUDY The rats were divided into four groups with each group comprising of three animals and labelled properly. After induction of arthritis plain drug suspended in PBS (pH 7.4), ETX-NPs and f-ETX-NPs in a dose equivalent to etoricoxib of 0.5 mg/kg body weight were administered through tail vein to albino rats. After 6 hr following administration of formulation, blood of animals was collected from retro orbital plexus of the eye, the rats were sacrificed and various organs such as liver, lung, kidney, spleen and arthritic knee joint were isolated. The organs were weighed, washed in PBS (pH 7.4) and stored at -20 °C until further required. Table 7.1 Data of biodistribution of etoricoxib in albino rats after i.v. administration of formulations Organs System Distribution of % injected dose /whole organ or tissue at 6 hr Blood Plain drug 53.17 ±2.11 ETX-NPs 29.23 ±1.39 f-ETX-NPs 24.39 ±1.10 Liver Plain drug 17.0 ±2.10 ETX-NPs 18.21 ±2.43 f-ETX-NPs 21.25 ±2.11 Spleen Plain drug 10.69 ±1.13 ETX-NPs 12.43 ±1.47 f-ETX-NPs 11.45 ±1.25 Kidney Plain drug 9.08 ±0.49 ETX-NPs 6.60 ±0.65 f-ETX-NPs 6.20 ±0.68 Lung Plain drug 2.76 ±0.28 ETX-NPs 4.81 ±0.53 f-ETX-NPs 6.60 ±0.71 Non-inflamed joint Plain drug 0.106 ±.02 ETX-NPs 0.11 ±0.02 f-ETX-NPs 0.104 ±.017 Inflamed joint Plain drug 0.11 ±0.020 ETX-NPs 0.35 ±0.058 f-ETX-NPs 1.42 ±0.049 Each value is expressed as mean  ±SD (n=3) Figure 7.1(A) % concentration of etoricoxib in blood after 6 hr of i.v. injection         Figure 7.1(B) % concentration of etoricoxib in liver after 6 hr of i.v. injection Figure 7.1(C) % concentration of etoricoxib in spleen after 6 hr of i.v. injection Figure 7.1(D) % concentration of etoricoxib in kidney after 6 hr of i.v. injection Figure 7.1(E) % concentration of etoricoxib in lung after 6 hr of i.v. injection Figure 7.1(F) % concentration of etoricoxib in noninflamed joint after 6 hr of i.v. injection Figure 7.1(G) % concentration of etoricoxib in inflamed joint after 6 hr of i.v. injection PHARMACODYNAMIC STUDY Carrageenan-induced Paw edema in rats This model is based on the principle of release of various inflamatory mediators by carrageenan. Edema formation due to carrageenan in rat paw is biphasic event. The initial phase is attributed to the release of histamine and serotonin. The second phase of edema is due to the release of prostaglandins, protease and lysosome. Assay was performed by single subcutaneous injection of 1% (0.1 ml) carrageenan as phlogistic agent and inflamation was determined by measuring change in the volume of inflamed paw , using a well calibrated plethysmometer (UGO,BASILE 7140, Italy). The carrageenan edema test was performed for drug loaded BSA nanoparticles as described by (Winter et al., 1962). Albino rats selected for the present study were weighed, numbered and left paw was marked with ink at the level of tibiotarsic articulation, so that every time, the paw was dipped into the plethysmometer up to the fix mark to ensure the constant paw volume. Basal paw volume was measured plethysmographically by volume displacement method using Plethysmometer (UGO Basile 7140 Italy ) by immersing the paw till the level of tibiotarsic articulation The weight of each animal was taken, averaged and were found to be around 120 g .The day time was chosen for the study to avoid any significant changes in the circardian rhythyms. Animals were divided into four groups (n=3) including one controlled group starved overnight with water ad libitum prior to the day of experiment. Test formulation of drug loaded BSA NPs (0.2%w/v) and plain drug suspended in PBS (pH 7.4) in dose of 0.5 mg/kg body wt. was administered through iv route to albino rats of respective groups excluding control group. The co ntrol group was injected with normal saline (PBS, pH 7.4). After administration of test formulations of drug loaded NPs of BSA, the rats were challenged by a subcutaneous injection of 0.1 ml of 1% solution of carrageenan into the sub-plantar side of the right hind paw. The paw volume was measured every hour till 4th hr and subsequently readings were taken at 8, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 and 72 hrs after challenge. The increase in paw volume was calculated as percentage compared with the basal volume. The difference of average values between treated animals and control group is calculated for each time interval and evaluated statistically. The percent Inhibition for each group was calculated using the formula as follows. Vcontrol -Vtreated % inhibition of edema = -χ 100 Vcontrol Where Vcontrol =mean edema volume of rats in control group, Vtreated mean edema volume of each rat in test group. The results are reported in the Table 7.2. A graph was plotted between % inhibition of edema Vs time ( Figure 7.2). Table 7.2 Screening Data for anti-inflamatory activity of plain drug solution, drug loaded nanoparticulate system and ligand conjugated drug loaded nanoparticulate system using carrageenan induced paw edema model. Time (hr) % Inhibition of edema Plain drug solution Drug loaded nanoparticulate system Ligand conjugated drug loaded nanoparticulate system 1/2 15.14 ±1.9 6.71 ±0.81 7.54 ±1.1 1 24.21 ±2.8 10.32 ±1.7 18.91 ±3.3 2 37.42 ±3.8 12.54 ±1.8 23.01 ±5.2 4 41.53 ±4.2 19.37 ±2.1 38.41 ±4.2 8 32.27 ±3.5 26.57 ±3.2 47.50 ±3.9 12 21.59 ±2.2 46.91 ±3.9 62.35 ±6.9 24 12.01 ±1.8 28.12 ±3.4 55.01 ±8.3 36 7.37 ±0.79 19.97 ±2.6 48.72 ±7.6 48 ND 12.10 ±1.9 24.59 ±3.3 60 ND 7.53 ±0.87 18.15 ±2.8 72 ND ND 7.78 ±0.89 ND= Not detectable; each value is expressed as mean  ±SD (n=3) Figure 7.2 Plot of % inhibition of edema Vs time Statistical analysis Results were expressed as mean  ±standard deviation (SD) and statistical analysis was performed with PSS 10.1 Chicago (USA). The biodistribution parameters were calculated with the help of (pk analyst) scientific programme from Micromath Inc. (UK). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In vivo studies are important in evaluating the therapeutic efficacy of designed dosage forms and also help in establishing the correlation between the results obtained from the in vitro experimentation to that of in vivo conclusions. In order to understand the fate of drug loaded NPs in vivo, the biodistribution of drug in various major organs was investigated. The amount of drug in the body depends upon its release, distribution metabolism and excretion from body. The concentration of drug in inflamatory knee joint was found about 3 folds higher in case of drug loaded NPs and about 10 folds higher in case of folic acid conjugated system as compare to the free drug administration. These results evidenced the site specific targeting of drug in inflammatory region. Concentration of drug in blood was found to be 53.17 ±2.11 % in case of plain drug solution, while in case of ETX-NPs and f-ETX-NPs it was found to be about 29.23 ±1.39 % and 24.39 ±1.10 % respectively of the whole injected dose which proved the sustained effect of formulations. The concentration of drug in liver was found to be 17.0 ±2.10%, 18.2 ±2.43% and 21.2 ±2.119% of the whole injected dose in case of plain drug, ETX-NPs and f-ETX-NPs respectively. Slight increase in the amount of drug (although very less) in various organs from formulations ETX-NPs and f-ETX-NPs suggested the RES uptake of nanoparticulate formulations in those organs. Concentration of drug in inflamed joint was raised up to 3 fold in case of plain ETX-NPs and 10 fold in case of f-ETX-NPs as compared to plain drug administration. This proved the targeting efficiency of nanoparticulate formulations both uncoupled as well as folate conjugated nanoparticles. The % inhibition of edema was found to be significantly higher from f-ETX-NPs as compared to the ETX-NPs and plain drug .The folic acid (folate) attached to the surface of NPs might have carried the NPs to folate receptors over expressed on the activated macrophages that is responsible for the release of various inflamatory cytokines including prostaglandins (PGs). CONCLUSION The above data suggested that the development of folate-conjugated therapeutic agents in treatment of arthritis may further enhance its site specific drug delivery at inflamed joints and may also be used as sustained drug delivery system in rheumatoid arthritis.

Fundamentals of Rocket Science :: physics rocket science

Liftoff Rocket engines are different from car or jet engines in two fudamental ways. 1. Unlike cars, rockets don't need to "push off" of anything to propel themselves forward. 2. Rockets are self-contained. In other words they don't need oxygen from the atmosphere to provide fuel for energy. Rockets operate using the law of conservation of linear momentum. This law states that whenever two or more particles interact, the total momentum of the system remains constant. In this case the shuttle and it's fuel can be considered separate particles. A rocket moves by ejecting its fuel out the nose at extremely high velocities (approx. 6000 mph). The fuel is given momentum as it is being ejected. To insure conservation of linear momentum, the shuttle must be given a compensating momentum in the opposite direction. Rockets move exactly like Dr. Newman would if he were on a sheet of ice with 3 million pounds of baseballs throwing them at a rate of 22,000 lbs/sec. Actually Dr. Newman would move quite a bit faster, because he has MUCH less mass than the space shuttle. To quickly summarize, thrust is equal to the exhaust velocity multiplied by the amount fuel leaving with respect to time. This is illustrated by the equation: Thrust = ve(dM/dt) This tells us the only way to increase the amount of thrust acting on the rocket, is by increasing the velocity of the exhaust, or the amount of fuel, M, leaving per second. * This is why space shuttles don't hurl baseballs out the back of the rockets. It's takes a lot of energy to accelerate a baseball to 6000 mph! Rocket Scientist (they don't call them that for nothing) prefer to use the ideal gas law: An ideal gas is one for which PV/nT is constant at all pressures. * Fuel and an Oxidizing agent, usually liquid oxygen and hydrogen respectively, are forced into the combustion chamber where they are ignited. The temperature increases which forces the pressure in the chamber to increase to insure PV/T remains constant. Volume inside the chamber is constant so: Pi/Ti = Pf/Tf, => Pf = PiTf/Ti Using Bernoulli's equation we can determine the velocity of the gas exiting the Nozzle: Ve = Ac[2(Pc - Pn)/(p(Ac^2-An^2))]^(1/2) where V = velocity, A = cross sectional area, P = pressure, p = density of the fluid, and n,c = defines Nozzle and Combustion Chamber respectively. The final step is to find the rate the mass is being ejected (dM/dt).

Of Mice and Men Scene Analysis Essay

1. Re-read p. 49 from â€Å"George followed to the door and shut the door†¦Ã¢â‚¬  until â€Å"George shuffled the cards noisily and dealt them.† on p. 50. How does Steinbeck create tension in this extract? Remember to use Point-Evidence-Explanation (referring to language techniques and effects), giving the reader’s personal response. The section between â€Å"George followed to the door and shut the door†¦Ã¢â‚¬  until â€Å"George shuffled the cards noisily and dealt them† is a particularly tensed scene because the reader and the characters are waiting for a specific event to happen. Carlson has taken Candy’s dog to shoot him. In the scene, everyone is waiting for the shot, which is the climax point of the tension, and the waiting makes the tension worse. The scene comes after we have viewed the argument of the men about Candy’s dog. Candy doesn’t want to kill his dog, so Carlson takes the dog outside to put it out of its misery. The reader might think that the men are being selfish, because they aren’t thinking about Candy who loves his dog, but about themselves. â€Å"Candy looked a long time at Slim to try to find some reversal. And Slim gave him none.† We can see that even Slim, who isn’t selfish, doesn’t try to stop Carlson. The scene starts with George closing the door and setting â€Å"the latch gently in its place†. The word â€Å"gently† suggests that he doesn’t want to draw any attention on him, so he tries not to make any noise. The fact that he shuts the door suggests that he doesn’t want Candy to hear the shot. â€Å"Candy lay rigidly on his bed staring at the ceiling.† His position shows how anxious he feels. Slim tries to start a conversation, but instead of an answer, â€Å"silence came into the room.† The word â€Å"silence† is repeated many times in this section, and it emphasizes the tension in the bunk. The phrase â€Å"silence came into the room† suggests that it’s an unwanted invader. The characters don’t really want to sit in silence, because this means that they will be able to hear the shot and that will upset Candy. But the fact that they are silent makes the reader think that even though they seem tough, they are capable of sensitivity. â€Å"It was silent outside. Carlson’s footsteps died away. The silence came into the room. And the silence lasted.† These are short sentences which create suspense. They make the reader stop and think about what’s happening. The pauses slow down the pace, and it moves slowly towards the inevitable conclusion, the shot. The use of short sentences might also suggest that the reader wants to read faster and finish this depressing scene. There is another unsuccessful attempt for conversation, by George: â€Å"I bet Lennie’s right out there in the barn with his pup.† George mentioning Lennie’s puppy reminds everyone that Candy’s dog is about to get shot and increases tension. Slim tries to comfort Candy: â€Å"you can have any one of them pups you want.† The reader here feels sorry for Candy and is wondering if another puppy can replace his dog. The personification later on highlights the tension in the bunk. â€Å"The silence†¦invaded the room.† However, George interrupts it by suggesting â€Å"to play a little euchre.† This shows that he’s trying to keep the attention of the others focused somewhere else. â€Å"He rippled the edge of the deck nervously, and the little snapping noise drew the eyes of all the men in the room.† We can see that George is nervous, because he is waiting for the shot and also for Candy’s reaction. In addition, we can see that the men are aware of the sounds going on in the room. The â€Å"little snapping noise† wouldn’t be so noticeable under normal circumstances, and this emphasizes, again, the tension. â€Å"A minute passed, and another minute.† Things seem to be happening in slow-motion. They take longer than usual. Whit suddenly exploded: â€Å"What the hell’s takin’ him so long?† It can’t take long to shoot a dog, but because they are anticipating hearing the shot, everything seems to take longer. This sudden explosion suggests that they want this awkwardness to end as soon as possible. â€Å"Candy lay still, staring at the ceiling.† The fact that he hasn’t moved suggests that he is anxious. Slim â€Å"subdued one hand with the other and held it down.† Slim until this point is portrayed as calm, but we can see that he is also affected by the tension in the bunk. The reader is now curious about what will happen next, even though they know what that is. â€Å"A little gnawing sound† came â€Å"from under the floor and all the men looked down toward it gratefully.† The word â€Å"gratefully† suggests that they feel relieved by the interruption. These interruptions make the scene more dramatic and suspenseful. Steinbeck’s preoccupation with tiny noises makes the atmosphere full of tension. These noises contrast the silence the reader encounters during the scene. Despite the interruptions, â€Å"Candy continued to stare at the ceiling.† This makes the reader feel sorry for him, because he can’t do anything now. The fact that the characters don’t move a lot makes the tension even worse. The reader feels that they are unmoving in anticipation of what is about to happen. However, Whit tries to get the place ‘alive’ and tells to George to â€Å"lay out some cards.† Suddenly, â€Å"a shot sounded in the distance.† The shot is almost a relief to everyone. â€Å"Every head turned toward him.† The men looked at Candy to see his reaction. â€Å"He rolled slowly over and faced the wall and lay silent.† Candy’s reaction suggests that he doesn’t want to show his emotions to the others. The reader is now wondering what Candy’s thoughts are and feels empathy for him, because all of this was out of his control. â€Å"George shuffled the cards noisily and dealt them.† This suggests that after the shot everything is back to normal, the silence and tension left like they had come. The tension in this scene is achieved by the author in a variety of ways, from the choice of words to the description of the time passing. It engages the reader and makes them feel sorry for Candy and his dog, his only true companion. The reader has now a lot of questions: Where will this incidence lead? Will Candy get another puppy? Will something similar happen further on? Next time the victim might even be a human.

Is AP Psychology Hard 5 Key Factors Discussed

Is AP Psychology Hard 5 Key Factors Discussed SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Before you sign up for any AP class, it's helpful to get an idea of whether you’ll be able to handle the workload (and the exam!). AP Psychology is a popular AP class that is offered at many schools, so you might have the chance to take it at some point in your high school career. But is AP psychology hard? Or is it a walk in the AP park? I’ll tell you which factors go into judging the difficulty of an AP class and examine what they tell us about the AP Psychology class and exam specifically. What Factors Go Into Determining the Difficulty of an AP Class? There are several components that we need to consider to get a clearer picture of how hard AP Psychology is overall. Here's what I'll be looking at in this article: Factor #1: Passing Rate The number of students who score a 3 or above on the AP exam can be a good indication of how difficult the class is. If a very high percentage of students earn passing scores, it may mean that the class is less challenging. It may also mean, however, that the class attracts higher-achieving students who are extremely well-prepared and tend to do better on tests across the board. That’s why, in addition to score averages, we'll also consider the perceptions of students and the actual difficulty of the content. Factor #2: Percentage of Students Who Earn a 5 Another important piece of statistical data that is slightly different from the passing rate is the percentage of students who earn 5s (the highest possible score) on the test. A large percentage of students may pass, but if only a small group earns 5s, it may mean that true mastery of the course material is hard to achieve. Even students who get 5s haven’t always fully mastered the material considering the fact that scoring a 5 on many of these tests only means answering 60-70 percent of questions correctly. Factor #3: Content Difficulty The actual content of the class is, of course, a critical factor to consider in investigating the difficulty of an AP class. Even if many students pass the exam, the class may be challenging because of the amount of ground it covers or the complexity of the material. Factor #4: How Students Perceive the Class Another critical factor in judging the difficulty of AP classes is the way students view them. As I mentioned, classes with high pass rates and high 5 rates may simply be courses that attract extremely hard-working students. Even if they ace the class and the exam, it doesn’t necessarily mean they found the material to be easy. They’re just willing to work through subjects that are hard for them. Student feedback can give us a different perspective on the difficulty of an AP class. Factor #5: When Students Take the Class This is a factor that impacts perceptions of the class and exam. If students tend to take the class earlier in high school, they're more likely to say that it’s difficult. If they take it their junior or senior year, they're more likely to feel comfortable with the material since they’ve gotten used to the workload in high school and may have already taken other AP classes. In the next section, I’ll go through all of these factors for both the AP Psychology class and exam to give you a better idea of their overall difficulty level. Time to put all the pieces together. Eventually, if you smoosh them together hard enough, a complete puzzle will materialize. What Do Statistics Say About the AP Psychology Exam? Let’s look at the passing rate and 5 rate. The passing rate for the AP Psychology exam is 65.6 percent, which is right around average compared to other AP exams. In comparison, AP Calculus BC has an 79.8 percent passing rate (one of the highest), and AP Environmental Science has a 47.7 percent passing rate (one of the lowest). The passing rate statistics would lead you to believe that the AP Psychology exam has a medium difficulty level as compared to other AP exams. The 5 rate for the exam is 21.2 percent. This 5 rate is towards the upper range of the spectrum as compared to other AP exams. There are only 11 AP exams that have 5 rates higher than AP Psychology, compared to the 20-30 with lower 5 rates. This might make you think that the test is on the easier side. But which is it? What does this really tell us? Interpreting these statistics means striking a difficult balance. Paradoxically, sometimes AP tests with high pass rates are actually more difficult. Since the subjects themselves are challenging (and have a reputation for it), they only attract the most motivated, well-prepared students. Similarly, AP tests for easier subjects might have lower passing rates because these classes attract less motivated students who don't always prepare thoroughly. Low pass rates can also happen on extremely popular tests where the number of students taking the test has increased rapidly, but their average level of preparation has declined due to the uneven quality of AP classes. Since AP Psychology is in the middle range of score statistics, we might initially assume that it has a medium level of difficulty in comparison to other AP tests. However, because AP Psychology is also one of the more popular tests, the 5 rate and passing rate could actually indicate that it’s much less difficult than your average AP test. In most other cases, popular tests have 5 rates that are skewed lower than the 5 rate for the AP Psychology exam. Taking all of this information into account, signs point to AP Psychology being one of the easier tests. The fact that it only has two free response questions (as compared to eight on a test like AP Biology) and that most of the material can be mastered through simple memorization also support this conclusion. Only two free response questions WAHOOO Is the AP Psychology Content Difficult? AP Psychology covers many different topics, but the content itself is not that difficult. The class focuses on teaching students about terms and theories that come from a relatively short period of history. Since the breadth of the content is not as wide as it is for other AP classes (for example, a class like AP Biology), teachers have the luxury of moving the course along at a more leisurely pace. You can also rely mostly on memorization to do well in the class, as opposed to in-depth analytical skills or advanced problem-solving strategies. As long as you know what the terms mean and are familiar with major psychological theories, you'll probably know the answers to most AP Psychology questions. There's even some room for interpretation in your answers to free response questions. If a question asks you to describe how certain psychological terms could relate to a scenario, there will be many different ways to earn points. Overall, the content for AP Psychology is manageable for most students. Compared to other AP classes, it's significantly less overwhelming and complex. Do Students Think AP Psychology Is Hard? Another factor to consider is how students perceive AP Psychology. This can depend heavily on the teacher and the way the class is taught, but the nature of the material itself also plays a significant role. In general, the perception of AP Psychology leans toward the class and test being easier than most other AP classes. Speaking from personal experience, I thought the AP Psychology class and test were the easiest of any AP class I took in high school. Many students who weren’t in any other AP classes took AP Psychology, and they did just fine in the class and on the test. It’s a lot of memorization of terms and theories and psychologists, but the way you’re asked to use that knowledge on the test and in the class isn’t necessarily highly complex. You just need to have a basic understanding of the definitions of terms and be able to apply them to different situations. The breadth of the material covered also isn’t as wide as some other AP classes. My guess is that the only reason the 5 rate isn’t even higher on the AP Psychology test is because many students don't prepare adequately. They may underestimate the test because AP Psychology classes are typically easier than other AP classes. Also, students who don’t take many (or any) other AP classes frequently take AP Psychology just to get an AP their transcripts. The test is definitely on the less difficult side, but the passing rate remains about average because so many kids take it, and many of them aren't adequately prepared. AP Psychology is also commonly taken during junior or senior year when students are more prepared for college-level material. This could be part of the reason students percieve the class as being relatively easy. By junior year, many high school students have taken other AP classes and can compare their experiences in those classes to their experiences in AP Psychology. Dude, I hear you get to watch movies every day in AP Psych, and you don't have to do, like, any work. Will AP Psychology Be Hard for You? Whether AP Psychology is difficult for you depends on how the class is taught at your school and what your strengths are as a student. Here’s what you should do to figure out if you're in for a challenge: #1: Ask Previous Students, Guidance Counselors, or Teachers About the Class The best way to learn whether the AP Psychology class taught at your school will be difficult is to ask people who either know about the class or have been through it themselves. If you're friends with any older students or have siblings, ask them what they thought of the class. You might even ask your current teachers to see how they feel about AP Psychology and if they think you’d be able to handle it. Your guidance counselor will also be familiar with your school's AP Psychology class and how students similar to you have fared in the course. This is a good way to judge whether the class is disproportionately easy or disproportionately hard in comparison to the actual AP test. It’s nice to know beforehand if you’ll need to do extra preparation for the test on your own to make up for a deceptively easy course. #2: Determine Whether Psychology Is Your Kind of Subject You should also think about whether you tend to succeed in classes that require similar skills to AP Psychology. AP Psychology is memorization-heavy, so you'll probably do well in it if history or biology classes have been your strong suit in the past. You might find it more challenging if you’re not great at memorizing facts and instead gravitate towards classes where the ability to use logical reasoning takes precedence over memorization (like math). #3: Consider Your Schedule If you’re taking a bunch of other difficult classes, you might not want to add AP Psychology into the mix. Even if it’s a relatively easy class at your school, you’ll still have to devote some study time to it, and taking an additional class could stress you out too much. AP Psychology could be the straw that breaks the camel's back. And YOU'RE THE CAMEL. Conclusion: So Is AP Psychology Hard? After considering all the factors, I would say that AP Psychology is not hard in comparison to other high-level classes. There isn’t a huge amount of material to cover, students usually report that the class is easy, and the exam is less demanding and complex than many other AP exams. This doesn’t guarantee that the class won’t be challenging for you (every school is different, and so is every student), but the amount of work required will probably be less than most other APs, and the most important skill you’ll need is memorization. Make sure that you don’t under-prepare for the exam, especially if your class ends up being especially easy. As long as you don’t let your guard down too much, AP Psychology should be a manageable class for you overall! What's Next? What are some topics you might cover in AP Psychology? Get a taste with our discussion of Stockholm Syndrome and whether or not it's real. If you're curious about the difficulty levels of other AP classes, read this article for an overview of how challenging the AP program is in general. You should also check out this article that lists the average scores for all AP tests. It will give you a better idea of which classes are right for you and how you might structure your schedule going forward. One of the benefits of AP is the ability to earn college credit. Learn more about how AP credit works at colleges. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

buy custom Albuterol in Asthma essay

buy custom Albuterol in Asthma essay Asthma is one of the most common pulmonary illnesses that affect more than fourteen million people in the United States (CDC, 2008). The prevalence of asthma is increasing in most countries, and estimates show that the numbers are likely to rise by 100 million by 2025 (Bateman et al., 2008). Asthma is characterized by reversible airway obstruction following exposure to environmental allergens or irritants or respiratory viral infection (CDC, 2008). Asthma is also characterized by impediment and irritation that occurs in many patients. Treatment of asthma has always been medications that are aimed at controlling the inflammation as well as the medications for general relief of the severe symptoms. However, the recommended management is the clinical assessment of the symptoms and the lung function assessment of an individual. These are viewed as the measures of the outcomes that result from this condition. Most asthma exacerbations are dealt with in various outpatient systems. However, more severe conditions require hospitalization. These hospitalizations are responsible for the foremost healthcare expenditures by patients. In the United States, these hospitalizations lead to over 400,000 cases of asthma hospitalizations annually. This eventually leads to very high expenditures for asthma related conditions (Bharmal Kamble, 2009). Asthma in both children and adults is associated with an increase in direct expenses, which eventually brings the expenditure to a very high level according to healthcare costs. The main therapy in the treatment of asthma is the administration of 2-receptor agonists which reverse the acute airway obstruction as well as other conditions such as cough. According to Ameredes (2009), levalbuterol and albuterol are the most common short acting 2-receptor agonists in the treatment of asthma. Racemic albuterol is a mixture of two stereo isomers R-albuterol and S-albuterol. Clinical studies have distinguished the two isomers in terms of their affinity. Studies upon isolation of the two isomers have revealed that R-albuterol is responsible for the bronchodilator activity. However, S-albuterol does not possess bronchodilator characteristics, but it acts in association with various pharmacological activities to neutralize the therapeutic effects of R-albuterol (Handley, 2000). Levalbuterol, also referred to as levosalbuterol is an alternative treatment for asthma and other pulmonary illnesses such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder (COPD). It blocks the beta-2-receptor to prevent the constriction of the airways in these conditions, and is therefore called a bronchodilator. Cells in the airways contain receptors that are called beta-2 receptors. Levalbuterol binds and activates the beta-2 receptors and is hence referred to as a beta agonist. This initiates signaling within the cells which results to the relaxation and opening of airways. However, the safety of albuterol and Levalbuterol is generally different. The S-isomer in albuterol has been believed to be inert in nature and its presence in the drug of no consequence. But it is now thought to foreshorten the duration of R-albuterol by compressing its potency (Handley, 2000). The main purpose of this study is to provide a comparative view of asthma related therapies, as well as the outcomes of tre atment after the maintenance treatment of asthma using levalbuterol and albuterol. Literature Review Studies in patient preferences on the type of medication provide crucial information on the evaluation of asthma symptoms as well as the effects of medication on the wellbeing of the patients and the levels of functional activities (Bateman et al., 2008). These studies have been insufficient in evaluating the effectiveness of albuterol in treating asthma. Albuterol has been in use for a long time but is said to be associated with various side effects such as tachycardia and jitters. The introduction of levalbuterol in 1999 has brought an opportunity to assess patient predilections between albuterol and levalbuterol. A stepwise approach to disease management is necessary for the assessment and eventual treatment of asthma. One of the main goals of asthma treatment is to uphold the wellbeing of people as one of the main humanistic upshot measures (Reed, 1985). Today, clinicians use many other measures to manage diseases with a need to control the effects of asthma as well as the wellbeing of the patients. These measures include patient satisfaction as well as other health related measures that are centered on the quality of life. Studies have revealed that patients preferences have a great impact on medication side effects, as well as patients quality of life. Patients compliance with the medication is also necessary for successful control of asthma (Bharmal Kamble, 2009). Disease control measures are also very crucial in reinforcing the positive perceptions of the treatment of asthma. When levalbuterol was approved in 2005, studies suggested that its use resulted in better respiratory parameters as well as fewer hospitalizations that brought about very little, if any, side effects and though it is priced much higher than albuterol since it has a higher duration of action (5-8 hours) as compared to albuterol (4-6 hours), its use led to generally lower treatment costs in terms of hospitalization and subsequent treatments (Carl, 2003). Studies comparing levalbuterol to albuterol revealed that levalbuterol yielded bronchodilation with few side effects. However, these results are not universal and some studies suggest no significant differences in clinical endpoints. The baseline distinctiveness for the two groups of patients (those who were administered with albuterol and those who were administered with Levalbuterol) was very distinctive (Ameredes, 2009). In the medical field, albuterol has been in use for a long time, one of the factors that make it preferable. Due to the mixture of the two isomers (R)-albuterol and (S)-albuterol that are considered inert, albuterol is considered somewhat classical in the medical field. However, the single-isomer formulation that has been manufactured recently is used therapeutically when the other component is deemed to be undesirable. Pharmacology Levalbuterol and albuterol are 2-receptor agonists and they reverse the acute airway obstruction as well as other conditions such as cough. The two drugs serve to reduce the resistance in the airway as they are known to enlarge the diameter of the bronchi or the air passages (Ozminkowsk et al., 2007). These drugs, therefore, help to enhance the overall flow of air both into the lungs and out. The drugs work on the beta-2 receptors resulting in the relaxation of the pulmonary smooth muscles (Perrin-Fayolle et al., 1996). Studies conducted with regard to the metabolism of levalbuterol in the human tissues indicate a 5-11 fold better sulfoconjugation within various human tissues than albuterol. A single dose of the albuterol dosage, whether taken orally or inhaled, results in a higher blood level within the body than levalbuterol (Perrin-Fayolle et al., 1996). Perhaps, this indicates a predominance of the (s)-albuterol, an inactive product, after repeated dosing of the active albuterol. It is estimated that up to 8 % of patients who receive nebulized racemic albuterol develop paradoxical bronchospasm, a condition which is life threatening. This decline in efficacy could be attributed to the composition of racemic albuterol. Levalbuterol is the therapeutically active bronchodilator in racemic albuterol, also referred to as (R)-albuterol. Evidence indicate that (S)-albuterol does not possess any bronchodilatory activity, in fact, it increases the level of calcium in the smooth muscle cells in vitro, which favors contraction and opposes bronchodilation. This also leads to increased in vitro bronchial reactivity of human airway smooth muscles. Clinically, the isomer promoted increased hypersensitivity and increased bronchospasm that is methacholine induced in patients with moderately severe asthma. On the contrary, levalbuterol, when administered as a single isomer, eliminates all the detrimental effects of (S)-albuterol (Bateman et al., 2008) Research has also shown that racemic albuterol and Levalbuterol are important since they produce effects that can be used as prescriptions for cancer treatment. The treatments include corticosteroid strengthening and the diminution of inflammatory mediators. However, on the other hand, (S)-albuterol produces contradictory effects. Studies indicate that the adverse effects associated with albuterol, such as jitters, tychardia and bronchospasms, are less frequent with levalbuterol (Gawchik, 2007). Symptom relief was also perceived to be higher, leading to a greater overall satisfaction with Levalbuterol treatment. However, it is important to bear in mind that while levalbuterol and albuterol help in relaxing the smooth muscles and increasing the flow of air within the airways, they do not actually reduce the speed of the progression of the primary disease (Ozminkowsk et al., 2007). They only help in minimizing the signs and symptoms of exercise and wheeze limitations along with the sho rtness of breath, leading to a better life for the people living with COPD. Improved outcomes Many investigators in their publications from studies have revealed that the use of levalbuterol yields better symptom relief and less frequency of the adverse effects as compared to albuterol. However, their pattern of outcomes cannot be applied universally because other studies propose that there is not a clear difference in clinical endpoints. Ozminkowski Wang (2007), state that the various publications that have resulted from various studies are difficult for doctors to follow. Most of these data highlight the effects of albuterol and levalbuterol in efficiency and safety. This was done by comparing the relief of symptoms and the exhibited side effects of each form of treatment. However, this clinical research provides no superiority of levalbuterol over albuterol. The effects of levalbuterol may be greatest to patients with moderate to severe asthma, especially in cases of racemic albuteol overuse (Ameredes, 2009). When a patient inhales racemic albuterol, he or she has a persistent effect that is caused by (S)-albuterol. This is in comparison to levalbuterol. This suggests potential contradictory outcomes from clinical experiments. One study carried out on children under the age of twelve years evaluated the treatment of asthma in children by caregivers who used either albuterol or levalbuterol. Various interviews were scheduled for caregivers, and the main questions were the satisfaction level of their children with bronchospasms. The caregivers were supposed to report contentment or discontent. The patients were administered with albuterol and levalbuterol for four consecutive weeks. After the first dose, levalbuterol created a greater relief of symptoms compared to doses of albuterol in nearly all patients including those with relentless asthma (Carl, 2003). Ameredes (2009), carried out a research study to find out the distinctive difference between albuterol and Levalbuterol. The objective of this study was to find out whether levalbuterol reduced the costs of treating asthma as compared to albuterol and to find out the various ways that levalbuterol and albuterol were different. He used a correlational research design that brought forward thirty seven patients who were diagnosed with acute asthma. The patients in his sample were children between the ages of 6-18. The results of this study indicate that Levalbuterols potency is 2-fold than racemic albuterol and 90 to 100 fold more than S- albuterol. Ameredes (2009) suggests that there have been highly heterogenous results from various studies that compare the clear differences between albuterol and levalbuterol. In one study, levalbuterol was more effective in suppressing bronchospasm than (R) albuterol and (S) albuterol. However, subsequent research studies revealed that there are equivalences between albuterol and levalbuterol. Some indicated that the effect of 1.25 mg levalbuterol was similar to that of 2.5 mg racemic albuterol, with (S) albuterol showing little measurable effect. The above studies were shot-term, and thus a short-time approach would be used to evaluate the two drugs. This approach, however, did not measure the difference that existed between albuterol and its isomers, if used chronically. Nelson (1998), conducted a clinical trial that would compare albuterol to levalbuterol. The study was based on both children and adults that were diagnosed with acute asthma in the United States. In his study, the patients were selected randomly and assigned levalbuterol or racemic albuterol. This trial was aimed at checking the equivalences of equal amounts of the two drugs. The study was correlational and involved fifteen patients from a local hospital. The study resulted in greater improvements in force expiratory volume in one second in the levalbuterol group as compared to the dose-equivalent of racemic albuterol group. This implied that an equimolar dose of levalbuterol produced better results than albuterol. The dose that produced numerically equivalent bronchodilation as recemic albuterol, 2.5 mg, was 0.63 mg levalbuterol, not 1.25 mg which is the mass equivalent dose. The interpretation of this data shows a particularly damaging effect of S-albuterol (Nelson, 1998). Clinical studies have been carried out in pediatric patients with asthma. According to Gawchik (2007), a randomized placebo-controlled trial was necessary to compare the two drugs. In his study, he discovered that no differences existed in bronchodilation with levalbuterol and albuterol. This was because there was no dose-related correlation in children with moderate asthma. However, the dose-related correlation was found in children with severe asthma. In another study of acutely asthmatic patients between the ages of 6-18 years, there was a conclusion that the more expensive levalbuterol did not reduce the amount of return visits to the hospital for further asthma management as compared to racemic albuterol (PerrinFayolle, 1996). The treatment also did not shorten the length of stay at the emergency department, improve expiratory flow (PEF), neither did it reduce the number of nebulized treatments when compared to racemic albuterol. On the other hand, contrary to this, Gawchik (2007), writes about the new form of albuterol inhalers that are in use in the market since 2009 in a bid to compare albuterol to levalbuterol. He notes that due to the recent changes, the new form is adjusted and better in terms of the security of use due to the fact that they are both human and environmentally friendly. The chloroflouroalkane found in rescue inhalers both in levalbuterol and albuterol have been found to harm the environment. Therefore, the inclusion of hydroflouroalkane has been important as a propellant. This is actually a positive step in the study of the effects of the two types of drugs. Ozminkowski Wang (2007), conducted another age-stratified randomized study with hospital admission rate of the patients presented to the emergency department as the outcome. The study was aimed at finding out the frequency of admission of patients to the emergency section and the return rate after discharge. The objectives of this study were to find out the patient-return rate after treatment in the emergency section and find out the role played by levalbuterol in assisting the quick recovery of patients in the emergency section. The admission rate was lower in the levalbuterol group as compared to the albuterol group (Ozminkowski Wang, 2007). The risk of the admitted group was greater in the albutrerol groups than the levalbuterol group. However, the length of hospital stay in the levalbuterol group was not significantly shorter than the albuterol group and there were no adverse effects in both groups. In this study, the conclusion was that substituting the administration of albuterol with levalbuterol would reduce the number of hospitalizations (Carl et al., 2003). This was supported by another study by Nowark et. al. that showed that levalbutereol was preferrable to albuterol in the treatment of acute asthma. Administration of the same dose showed that improvement was greater in levalbuterol as compared to racemic albuterol. The study also indicated that patients with higher plasma levels of (S) albuterol show slower improvement and have a higher likelihood of hospital admission In the same research, the investigator notes several factors. First and foremost, he acknowlegdes the fact that abuterol is the most commonly prescribed inhaler with beta-2 agonist. In addition, he notes that it is also considered the best drug when it comes to reversal of acute bronchospasm. Due to the equal mixture of (S) and (R)-albuterols, there is little effect of broncholdilating activities. On the contrary, the (R)- albuterol has a better binding effect to beta-2 receptors as compared to the (S)-albuterol (Tripp, 2008). According to the investigator, the creation of levalbuterol was needed for several reasons including fewer incidences of transcient tachycardia; the chance of better tolerability as compared to albuterol; and a higher efficacy than albuterol. A further examination of the research, showed that patients benefit more from levalbuterol. Additionally, the outcomes of the study revealed that levalbuterol was better than albuterol in a sense that patients treated with levalbuterol required less medication after recovery and that they had shorter lengths of hospital stay. A regression analysis revealed that levalbuterol was allied with duration of stay savings. Another study conducted by Truitt, Witko, Halpern (2003), showed similar improvements in FEV and mean heart rate decreased with levalbuterol. This study that was carried out in comparison to albuterol. However, the researchers note that the magnitude of the difference is minute. Therefore, it is important to study these differences together in order to detrmine the most reliable results. Nonetheless, the investigators note that results may be helpful to patients who are affected with arrhythmias, cardiac conditions and structural heart diseases. This is because if the differences are not considered, it may worsen the heart condition. Therefore, the investigators note that the transcient tachycardia that is evident in cardiac patients may be a key indicator of the dose dependancy that is formed with time by patients who use levalbuterol and albuterol (Truit, Witko Halpern, 2003). In another study, Nowak (2008) and his colleagues compared the effects that are brought forth by nebulized levalbuterol. This was in comparison to the ones that are brought forth by racemic albuterol. The subjects were 627 adults who suffered from acute asthma. The subjects were radnomly given the opportunity to use either 1.25 mg of levalbuterol or 2.5 mg of albuterol. This was after twenty minutes of emergency admission and 40 minutes later all the patients received 40 mg of prednisone. The level of expiratory volume was forcefully increased by 40 percent when the patients were administered with levalbuterol, this is in comparison to racemic albuterol. The investigators also discovered that this coresponded to a fourty percent reduction in the subjects who required hospitalization (Nowak, 2008). The effects of levalbuterol were evident in patients who had severe asthma. The high levels of (S)-albuterol in the circulating plasma are thought to be the main cause of overuse of racemic albuterol. The number of relapses in the two groups after a period of thirty days, however, did not differ. In another randomized clinical trial, Carl et al. compared the use levalbuterol with racemic albuterol in over 500 pediatric patients reporting to a hospitals ED. Hospital admission rates were reduced among those receiving levalbuterol in comparison with those receiving racemic albuterol treatments. The study was also seeking to establish the hospital conversion where levalbuterol racemic albuterol was replaced with levalbuterol 1.25 mg every 8 hours or levalbuterol 0.63 mg every 6 hours. Despite that the frequency of levalbuterol was less, the patients required fewer rescue treatments to reduce the symptoms than did those treated with racemmic albuterol. This means that the less frequently scheduled treatments with levalbuterol will lead to reduced workload and reduced number of missed treatments because of unavailability of therapists. This is also supported by Truit et al, who reported that treatment with levalbuterol required one day less of admission, significantly fewer treatments and a 67 % decrease in readmissions within 30 days of discharge after treatment with the 2-agonist compared with racemic albuterol. Other studies reported similar results, indicating that treatment with levalbuterol reported decreased numbers of daily treatments, reductions of staffing and fewer as-needed treatments when compared to racemic albuterol as the acting 2-agonist. Nowak (2008) conducted another study of patients who suffered from acute asthma and another group suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). There was a comparison of treatment of levalbuterol and albuterol that were administred in a period of 6 to 8 hours in 1.25 and 2.5 miligrams repectively. There were fewer nebulizations that were requiredwhen it came to the case of levalbuterol. On the other hand, there was an increased need for rescue aerosols in the period of 14 days hospitalization. However, most of the other outcomes were similar in the two groups. This is including the costs and study of the pulmonary functions. In the study by Truitt et. al. (2003), the retrospective chart review on hospitalized patients who had asthma and COPD showed that the results were more or less the same. This therefore led to the conclusion that the benefit of levalbuterol over albuterol is usually greatest in patients who have moderate as compared to severe asthma, particularly t hose with an overuse of albuterol. Side Effects Vitro and animal studies have shown significant outcomes that can be used as a basis of comparison. Many research studies reveal that albuterol is associated with severe effects that raise concerns, such as chest pain and high blood pressure. This could be because of the fact that inhalation of racemic albuterol leads to pushiness in circulating S-albuterol twelve times more than levalbuterol (Ameredes, 2009). Levalbuterol has been acclaimed to be a safer form of albuterol but it comes at increased costs. It costs five times more than racemic albuterol. According to Gawchick (2007), albuterol is purely used for the treatment of symptoms that are occasional but an overdose of the drug can be fatal. One of the precautionary measures that should be taken when using albuterol is that the use should be discontinued in cases of adverse side effects, including hypersensitivity; abnormal heart rhythms; diabetes; epilepsy this is coupled with seizure disorder; and heart diseases. The researcher also notes wheezing, pounding heart, tight chest, nervousness, blood pressure, and chest pains side effect may be a sign of hypersensitvity. Evidence from preclinical and clinical studies suggest that the worsening of asthma symptoms in some patients with continued use of albuterol or its overuse could be contributed by the racemic mixtures of albuterol isomers, which may result from the presence of the (S)-albuterol. The slow phamarcokinetic profile is one significant characteristic of (S)-albuterol. It is metabolized 12 times slower than levalbuterol. This is because it does not have sulfation and elimination enzymes preferrentially specific to levalbuterol. This leads to the differences in circulating levels of the isomers after administration of racemic albuterol. After administering a dose of inhalable racemic albuterol, it has been shown that the circulating levels of levalbuterol are undetectable wheras the levels of (S)-albuterol persisit for as long as 12 hours and may be preferentially retained in the lungs (PerrinFayolle, 1996). Therefore, it is important to consider the physiologic and pharmacologic effects of each isomer within the racemate mixture separately. According to Truit, Witko Halpern (2003), the issue of tolerance is still a bit controversial. There are some researchers that have noted that the overuse of racemic albuterol may lead to some factors that include hypokalemia and even increased mortality. Therefore, due to the lack of bronchodilator activities in (S)-albuterol, there may arise the situation of worsening air activity or rather pro-inflammatory effects. This is because it is metabolized 10-fold slower than levalbuterol (Truit, Witko Halpern, 2003). This could additionally result in the accumulation of (S)-isomer over (R)-albuterol leading to paradoxic bronchospasm. In addition, patients who suffer from asthma or COPD and other cardiac diseases have a likelihood of worsening the situation when they experience tachycardia and this therefore means that they are safer when using levalbuterol as compared to albuterol (Lovtall, Palmqvist, Maloney, Vantresca and Ward 2004). Studies have also discovered poor adherence to med ication by patients who suffer from tachycardia The other main factor that was noted when comparing the two agents is cost. Before the year 2009, the metered-dose inhaler (MDI) that had generic formulations was widely available. There were also versions of albuterol that were much cheaper. They included proventil and ventolin. This fact also applied to levalbuterol. On the contrary, many of the MDI formulations contained a lot of chloroflourocarbon and therefore, this meant that they had to be banned by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration). This was particularly due to environmental reasons. Therefore, the unavailabilty of the MDI has led to the leveling in price of the two agents (Truitt et. al., 2003). However, there are variations in the cost of levalbuterol nebulization as compared to albuterol nebulization. The use of levalbuterol faces various limitations including higher costs, small sample size in terms of testing, inadequate manpower and lack of support by many researchers This however, does not mean that albuterol should be preffered over levalbuterol since there are instances when levalbuteral tends to be widely accepted. First and foremost, there is a need by patients who have severe chronic asthma to get the doses of beta-2 agonist. This happens in spite of the use of controller therapies. A study by Tripp (2008) showed that levalbuterol resulted in Forced Expiratory Values (FEV) that were equivalent to or better than those that were observable in albuterol. The -mediated effects were lower for a single dose of levalbuterol as compared to racemic albuterol. In this studies, treatment of asthma using levalbuterol was cheaper due to the little numbers of hospital admissions (Tripp, 2008). In this particular study, levalbuterol treatment in the emergency department was cost effective because it led to a situation of patients recovering faster and thus reducing the cost of healthcare. Although the (R) -albuterol and (S) albuterol isomers are similar in their molecular weight and their physiochemical properties, their 3-dimensional structure makes them super imposable. This conformational stereochemistry makes their properties distinct and for each isomer which results to them being considered different compounds (Nelson, 1998) As a result, regulatory authorities have demanded that the potential risks associated with the mixtures that make up racemic albuterol be quantified. Levalbuterol was developed to minimize the side effects associated with (S)-albuterol and maximize therapeutic effects. The findings of this study demonstrate that the use of levalbuterol significantly reduces hospital admission rates in patients presenting to the ED with acute asthma when compared to racemic albuterol. The study suggests that levalbuterol has clinical benefits over racemic albuterol in critical care settings, and these benefits are evident in both pediatric and adult patients administered with levalbuterol. The above studies were conducted in geographically distinct ED settings, with varying patient populations, physicians, and socioeconomic conditions demonstrating that substituting racemic albuterol with levalbuterol improves patient outcomes by reducing hospital admissions. Different studies have suggested that levalbuterol produces greater bronchodilation than racemic albuterol and improves discharge rates and health resource use (Ozminkowski Wang 2007). A post-hoc analysis on the patients found that their (S)-albuterol plasma levels negatively impacted their baseline forced expiratory volume in 1 second as well as pulmonary function an hour after ED treatment was commenced. Despite the higher cost of levalbuterol in the treatment of asthma, when the total costs are considered, the differences in the costs are insignificant. The overall costs were similar in the levalbuterol group and the racemic albuterol group. The cost reductions were reported with increasing severity of asthma. This results from reduced hospital admissions and less frequent dosing, making the treatment more cost effective despite its high cost (Nowak, 2006) The clinical and preclinical benefits of levalbuterol observed in the literature cited in this investigation occur due to the difference between the two agents which is the presence of (S)-isomer in the racemic mixture. Despite previous studies suggesting that it is inert, the (S) isomer may instead have some proinflammatory effects. The bronchoprotective efficacy of racemic albuterol progressively declines with regular use, leading to reduced interval between dose and decreased bronchodilation (Nelson, 1998). The above findings indicate that levalbuterol, when used in place of albuterol reduces the number of hospital admissions, and is cost effective in the treatment of acute asthma in the ED setting. This makes the observations provocative and interesting since the only difference between the two agents is the presence of the (S)-isomer in the racemic mixture. The mainstay of therapy for reactive airway diseases has been rapid-onset 2-agonist agents such as racemic albuterol. However, the recent isolation of (R)-isomer levalbuterol has provided a new option for the treatment of asthma and COPD. The use of levalbuterol therapy produces both clinical and economical advantages when compared to albuterol therapy. Buy custom Albuterol in Asthma essay

Outline a plan to stop a planned terrorist incident conducted by Research Paper

Outline a plan to stop a planned terrorist incident conducted by Hezbollah - Research Paper Example Additionally, the paper discusses the mitigating and responsive factors that are paramount in order to avoid the loss of lives as occurred during the 9/11 attacks. Furthermore, the discourse delves into the fundamental preventive measures such as the application of the Patriot Act that uses intelligence and surveillance to stop terrorism suspects from perpetrating their acts. There are different hazards that the terrorist group, Hezbollah is capable in terms of its militant activities. This ranges from shooting down planes carrying high profile personalities and planting bombs in influential buildings. Similarly, this Jihad-guided organization has power to hijack planes and ram into buildings the way Al Qaeda did in the 9/11 attacks in America that resulted to several loss of lives. However, it is noteworthy to observe that Hezbollah initially was not a jihadist group but a form of movement that played a fundamental in Lebanon’s independence (Bullock, Haddow & Coppola, 2009). On that aspect, this group has developed a deep hatred for the Christian Maronite and the Sunni. This has hardened the group into the most dreaded global terrorist organization that executes its missions through suicide bombings. For example, there were more than thirty incidents of suicide bombings in Lebanon in the early 80s though the group does not acknowledge their acts. This deadly tactic was also used in 1983 when a suicide bomber riding vehicle packed explosive materials drove near USA barracks and killed more than two hundred and forty one US marines (Uda, 2009). Apart from the use of suicide bombings, this militant organization also uses extortion as a technique of communicating their message to their enemies that include Israel and the US. This has been apparent in cases where members of either states or their sympathizers have been caught by the group. Moreover, the extortion always

Political Ideologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Political Ideologies - Essay Example Ideologies are therefore patterns of thought that play a crucial role in shaping political landscapes often in unconscious ways1. Of these, include democratic ideology. With its origin traced back to the ancient Greece, democracy refers to a system of leadership in which political governance is by people directly or by electing their representatives into leadership positions. The emphasis of this ideology is the free exercise individual rights in shaping political orientations of their country. Its basic tenet is the rule by many through democratic selection processes. The major flaw with this ideology is that the majority always gets their way and may result to oppression of the minorities. Second is conservative ideology. As the word suggests, this ideology refers to the assertion that the traditional governance institutions function the best way possible and that it necessary to avoid radical changes taking place in the society as much as it is practically possible. The emphasis h ere is on ensuring continuity of systems, maintaining stability and where possible returning things to their original status. Liberalism is the third. Attaining equity and liberty in the society are the key defining assertion of this political ideology. The emphasis here is on such things as the constitution, exercise of inherent human rights, democracy defined by free and fair elections, free market economy defined by free trade, and secularism in a country. Embracing divergent political views, libertarians advocate for a minimized statehood or its abolition while advancing a maximized individual liberty. This means that an examination of observed liberalism may establish that they have liberty situated in their core; human rights, democracy, and equality are adjacent while nationalism is on the periphery2. Other political ideologies include socialism, which opposes capitalism on the basis that it creates and concentrates wealth and power to a small segment of the society through w anton exploitation of resources including human resources. They advocate for a system that creates equal opportunity for all people to maximize their potential while using technology and resources for the benefit of the public as a whole, while doing away with any form of coercive pecking order. Closely linked to this is the green party ideology that promotes the exercise green politics defined by social justice, local level democracy, environmentalism, and violence free societies to realize world health. The independent ideology promotes none affiliation to political parties although standing by the principals and manifestoes of political parties is acceptable3. Based on evaluation of the various types of political ideologies, the liberal ideology provides the best flat form for freedom and equality among society members. Since attaining equity and liberty are its basic precepts, this ideology advocates for a structure that provides individuals with basic human rights and freedoms entrenched in a constitution. It further captures aspects like the exercise of free and fair elections also advocated for by the democratic ideology as well as for equal opportunity based on free markets and secularism for people to attain their full potentials4. As opposed to the socialism and republican/ conservative ideology, liberalism allows for improvement in the state of affair to attain maximum benefit possible for an individual in a free market setting. In conclusion, the different types of politica